The Man that Birthed a Great Religion

Religion can be defined as a profound spiritual or psychological transformation that is brings all types of people together in a social conversion. Islam, which is the smallest of the three major monotheistic religions, began with the belief of a "submission to Allah" because of the man named Muhammad Ibn Abdullah.

Muhammad was born in the city of Mecca and became orphaned early in life until his adoption by an uncle. He was known as a distant city traveled trader and married a wealthy widow who provided him with financial and emotional support. A fine reflective man who was deeply troubled by the religious corruption and social inequalities of Mecca. In order to escape the tradition that disturbed Muhammad, he began to make long retreats to a mountain cave outside of Mecca. During one of his meditations, a visionary experience from an intermediary of God instructed him to recite the words of beauty and force that attributed them to God.

It was during the time when Muhammad revealed the messages to his tribe, that verses were gathered and became the Islamic sacred scripture titled the Qur'an. During the next decade, Muhammad and his followers were belittled and ridiculed with physical attacked because of a growing monotheistic religion. It was because of one man that a powerful conquest over Mecca took place and created a infamous religion.

http://www.pbs.org/muhammad/timeline_html.shtml
Strayer, R. W. (2009). Ways of the World: A Brief Global History (Vol. 1). Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin's.

Jihad, its true meaning.

When examining the early formation of the Islamic religion in my history class, we learned of the Five Pillars that Muslims must live by. Also, we looked at the five Articles of Faith that a Muslim must believe in order to consider themselves a devout Muslim. Apart from these two requirements of the faith, Muslims must also study the Koran and follow the practice of Jihad. I was particularly interested in why the concept of Jihad was its own category and why it did not just fall under one of the pillars or Articles of Faith. While searching for the answer to my question I came across an academic study that's purpose was to explain the original intentions of the concept of Jihad according to its first interpretation.

This article describes Jihad as something every member of the Islamic society must carry out, that is"they must exert themselves at all moments of life to fight a battle both inward and outward against those forces that if not combated will destroy that equilibrium which is the necessary condition for the spiritual life of the person and the functioning of human society." In simpler terms, Jihad is a battle against the evils of not only the outside world but also the evils generated with in each individual. The vices Muslims are trying to avoid internally are hatred, laziness, forgetfulness, and dissipation. The reason that Jihad is not one of the Five pillars is that each of the pillars reinforces the concept of Jihad. The pillars are set up as a means to help the process of living while successfully accomplishing Jihad.

To learn in more detail the concept of Jihad visit this website: Academic Journal

Early World Baghdad

During the time of the Islamic movement, Baghdad was not close to the Baghdad we see today. In 762, the Abbasid dynasty moved the Capital of the Muslim World to Baghdad. Over the next five centuries, the city became the world's cent of education and culture. The area housed many of the great scholars and they contributed in both the sciences and humanities. Some common theories that derived from them area were common medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and literature. The city was filled with museums, hospitals, libraries and mosques and most importantly the famous learning center known as Bayt al-Hikmah (the House of Wisdom).



Construction on the House of Wisdom began in the ninth century under the the Caliph Harun ar-Rashid. It was originally founded to house the works from Arun ar-Rashid's grand father, his father, and himself. While his son invited translators to purse a project which involved the translating into Arabic of essential texts written in a variety of languages. The House of Wisdom was divided into departments for each of the sciences and scholars from all disciplines who met and worked within the walls. The building allowed for many different people to work under the roof. On a given day you would see Jewish, Christian, Islamic and Zoroastrian scholars working.





Information from:
http://islam.about.com/cs/history/a/aa040703a.htm
http://hubpages.com/hub/House-of-Wisdom-in-Medieval-Baghdad

The Difference Between Sunni and Shiite Islam

Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 2 billion followers, and has two major sects- the Sunnis and the Shiites. Both groups believe in the 5 Pillars of Islam and practice the same principles of the religion but have many differences, from the rightful leader of Islam to the form of Allah's(God's) body.



Today Sunni Muslims make up about 89% of all Muslims with about 940 million followers while the Shiites have only around 120 Million followers. The Shiite population makes up nearly all of Iran and close to half of Iraq. The following map shows the distribution of the Muslim population in Europe, Asia and Africa. The dark green represents the Shiites and the light green represents the Sunnis.










The split between the two groups formed in the years after Muhammad's death. The Sunni's believed that Muhammad's successor should be the most qualified leader and voted on by the people. The Shiites, however, believed that only direct descendants of Muhammad should be allowed to succeed his throne. The Shiites selected Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, to be their leader but he Sunni Muslims, the majority, voted Abur Bakr as the first Caliph. Ali eventually became the fourth Caliph but was assassinated. The two branches have been in constant conflict ever since the disagreement over the first successor of Muhammad.



While the two branches of Islam both use the same teachings they have many conflicts in belief. Both groups believe in the Mahdi, or "rightfully guided one." The Mahdi is the global Caliph of all Islam. The Sunnis believe the Mahdi has not been born yet and has not come to Earth, but the Shiites believe he is already here on Earth and can feel his presence. The Sunnis believe Allah has a body and can be seen on Earth and in the afterlife. The Shiites believe Allah does not have a body and can never be seen. Sunnis believe anything Allah commands is a good thing, even if it is to murder someone. Sunnis also believe that Allah controls every person's acts while the Shiites believe that Allah know what we will do but does not control it.



Overall, the two branches have the same basic beliefs and teachings but that is where any similarities end. Shiite and Sunni Islam are almost two different religions rather than two different sects of the same religion.

Information was taken from the following websites:
http://www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/difference-between-sunni-and-shiite-islam/
http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/comp/cw11sunnishiitesplit.htm

"The Trusted One" and his Muslims

In class, we watched a movie on Islam and Muhammed's effect on the country. Islam was an oral culture, they told stories and lessons mostly through poetry. The only way to find out the history of their country, was through poems passed down through generations. Their religion was built upon worshipping spirits, more specifically spirits of the earth ( wind, water, rock, etc). Muhammed, would forever change the religion of Islam. Muhammed became a merchant and eventually accumulated a group of followers called Muslims. Together, they built a book of revelations of natural beliefs (chosen words/description of God) called the Quran. The religion was then centered around this book, just like Christianity is centered around the Bible. I found it interesting and liked the fact that it was easy to become Muslim and take part in the religious beliefs. It was easy to practice. I am a Christian, so the simplicity of being Muslim attracted me because being a Christian is simple too! It takes 2 concepts to be a full-fledged Muslim. You have the 5 Pillars of Islam and the Articles of Faith. As long as you practice and uphold those obligations, you are praticing their faith. There are obligations to Christianity too, but I believe the Muslims' obligations take more dedication, they are more detailed, and there are more 'rules' to follow.

For instance, with Muslims, one of their obligations is to pray 5 times a day and you have to pray at the Kabba. Where as in Christianity, you can pray whenever and wherever you want. Another example is Muslims have to make a pilgrammage to Mecca at least one time in their life. Christianity does not require a pilgarammage to any place.

Being a Muslim created much controversy between the people of Islam, just like Christianity was not accepted very easily either. These 2 religions have many simliarities, even though they may be carried out or practiced differently. Keeping religion simple is a good way to go. It allows for more followers and can potentially be long-lasting. It seems that simplicity is key to success in religious practices.

Christianity full circle

After Constantine the Great converted his religious beliefs to those of the Christian faith, Rome began to accept and adopt some of the Christian practices. Rome had a culture that allowed them to take on the beliefs of others if it bettered the community as a whole. The morals and ethical practices of the Christian religion provided individual motivation toward order in the city. The Romans eagerly welcomed the ideas of individual purpose in life, and an afterlife of salvation and individual immortality. In terms of politics, Romans used the Christian name to establish trade connections with other Christians and eventually Christianity became the only legal religion in Rome. Also, the ability to publicly promote the religion allowed for interaction with many different cultures and provided a larger sense of community among many different peoples.

An interesting connection can be made between the assimilation of Christianity into Roman society and the extraction of it in America society today. The Romans used Christianity to grow not only socially, but also politically. Today, Americans are in a constant state of protest against the founding principles of Christianity in the government. Many Americans want the word "God" to be taken out of the pledge of allegiance, and many more are calling for the removal of Christian influence in the courts. The way in which the Romans were willing to accept beliefs of different religions and adopt them into their community, is exactly opposite to the practices of the United States in regards to religion. The U.S. is trying very hard to rid itself of religion in government all together. Instead of including all the different religions in some way into the practices of the whole community to create a state of acceptance; Americans are discluding every religion in the hopes that everyone will be equal in their position of no voice religiously.

My Take on the First Council of Nicaea

In 325 CE the Emperor Constantine convened a council of Christian religious leaders to resolve many issues and conflicts in the Church. Topics ranged from jurisdiction of the clergy to basic, core beliefs of Christianity. The main reason for the Council was to settle the controversy over the nature of the Trinity. "It was the decision of the council, formalized in the Nicene Creed, that God the Father and God the Son were consubstantial and coeternal and that the Arian belief in a Christ created by and thus inferior to the Father was heretical"1.

The First Council of Nicaea is most famous for the formation of the Nicene Creed, which states the basic beliefs of Christians.

As a Christian I find it very interesting and perplexing that many of my core beliefs were decided by an Ancient Roman Emperor who only converted to Christianity after seeing a Christian symbol in his dream the night before a victorious battle. How well did Constantine understand all of Christianity? How do us Christians know he made good decisions about our religion? And how do we know if Constantine changed basic Christianity beliefs during this council to make them more "Roman?" These are questions many Christians ask themselves after learning of the First Council of Nicaea. But do we really need to freak out over this?

The decisions made at the Council, however, were not made by Constantine alone. Nobody knows for sure who presided over the Council, although it can be assumed that Constantine played a major role in the decision-making process because he was the Emperor and he did call the council after all. Many other high-ranking Clergy members were present at the council so it is safe to say that Constantine did not make any horribly irrational decisions or any major changes that were not agreed to by other high-ranking Church leaders.

So to all my fellow Christians I say no, we do not need to freak out over the original Council of Nicaea. Yes, Constantine was most likely in charge but he was not the only one making decisions- many clergy members were also involved. So do not worry about your beliefs being all wrong because a former Roman Emperor played a role in deciding them. The fact is that at the time a Council was completely necessary to organize the Church and pave the way for it to become as large and as influential as it is today.

1: http://www.thenazareneway.com/council_of_nicaea_nicea_325.htm

I have a Dream...

Like Martin Luther King Jr., Constantine the Great also had a dream that affected history. His dream occurred on October 28th 312 C.E., the night before his memorable battle against Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. The roman letters of Chi and Rho appeared next to the words "in this you shall conquer." In his vision be believed that Christ was protector and would lead him and his army into victory. Constantine would put the symbol seen in his dream on the shields of his army to help protect them during battle. With the victory over Maxentius in the Battle of Milvian bridge, Constantine turned his religious beliefs towards Christiane and away from the worship of Greek and Roman Gods.




The coin above was commonly used after the victory at Milvian Bridge. The image on the front of the coin is Constantine and the image on the back depicts the image he seen in his dream known as Labarum. Without Constantine's dream the spread of Christianity would not have been as significant as it was and still is today.

Information found from:
http://forumancientcoins.com/Articles/Constantine_Ch_Rho_files/Constantine_Ch_Rho.htm

Nation of Churches

We have had many discussions in the last couple of weeks about the initiation of Christianity to the Roman state and the influence from Constantine the Great. The Roman state adopted Christianity as the states major religion during the 4th century AD. The Emperor Constantine was convinced that the Christian god had promoted him in his rise to power and was determined to ensure on-going divine protection for his empire. To ensure that the interest of Church and State were closely related, a major symbolic relationship defined the Byzantine Empire.


The Orthodox church emerged receiving numerous legal and financial dispensations which made it a key player in the Byzantine Empire. The Church was then able to regard Constantine as God's chosen representative on earth who guide his people according to the divine will instead of being regarded as a God himself. As the Byzantines debated the nature of Christ, the Council of Nicaea and Ecumenical Church Councils were created to convene any matters of religious controversy.

The Church of Byzantium played a major role in the development in religious traditions that then spread throughout the Middle East. Below is a list of fourteen Churchs that followed the Byzantine Liturgy with their own variations and history.
1. Albanian Church 8. Italo-Albanian Church
2. Bulgarian Church 9. Melkite Church
3. Byelorussian Church 10.Romanian Church
4. Croatian Church 11. Russian Church
5. Georgian Church 12. Ruthenian Church
6. Greek Church 13. Slovakian Church
7. Hungarian Church 14. Ukrainian Church

These Churches created a trend and domino effect that has given us such a diversity of Religions across the world.

For more information:
http://byzantium.seashell.net.nz/
http://www.faswebdesign.com/ecpa/byzantine/overview.html

Constantine the Great's impact on the Roman Empire

The Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) was the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages and Constantinople(Byzantium) became its capital. Diocletian created a new form of an "administrative" system because the Roman state became too big. There was an over-extension. Diocletian decided to divide Rome into two empires, an East Empire and a West Empire. The two empires then had sub-divisions. In the sub-divisions, Diocletian assigned for each of the states or cities to have two emperors and two ceasars. However, the Roman Empire gets invaded by the Huns and the Western Empire collapses. With this decline, comes a new ruler, Constantine the Great. He becomes emperor of the Eastern Empire and and Constantinople becomes the capital. The most significant culture feature of this empire (Byzantine) was the rise of Christianity. Constantine becomes a main supporter of this religion because of a vision he had. In his vision he saw a religious symbol (Labarum) and it told him to conquer. He had this "dream" before the battle of Milvian Bridge. At this battle Constantine and his army won. This was coincidence enough to convert him to Christianity. Constantine wanted to spread his wisdom to others so he offered grants and gifts in a form of persuasion. After much of this "preaching" Christianity becomes the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. Constantine started to build monestaries to improve the expansion of the religion. Eventually, Christianity becomes "Romanized". An example of this romanization would be the structure and look of Catholic churches we see today. Christianity became so popular and so expanded, that anyone who was not part of it was considered barbarian. The Byzantine Empire and Rome were forever changed by this religion. This empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe. It can be said, "Constantine converts to Christianity and Christianity converts to Rome."

Holy Apples Batman!

Apples, apples, apples: Granny Smith, to Macintosh, to Honey crisp, and Golden Delicious. Apples are a major fruit import and export in our society, especially during the fall season when people crave their donuts and cider. Apparently, apples have been around since Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. But, as far as I know, they date back to 8,000 B.C. A timeline of apples can be retrieved here: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/maia/history.html Since the discovery of this fruit, they have been symbols of love, beauty, luck, health, comfort, pleasure, wisdom, temptation, sensuality, sexuality, virility and fertility. In Greek mythology, Gaia, or Mother Earth, presented a tree with golden apples to Zeus and his bride Hera on their wedding day. However, these golden apples were heavily guarded. The apples soon became a temptation and bribery. Because the golden apples were given to Zeus on his wedding day, a sexual connotation soon became intertwined. This is a possible reason on why apples became a dessert at the end of a meal in Greek society.
Today, apples are only seen as a source of food, health, and pleasure (enjoying the delectable item), and a good source of fiber to help with digestion :). Apples are made in all kinds of varieties to cater to peoples specific desires and wants. These varieties include different colors, tastes, textures, etc. As far as I know, there are not any sexual connotations related to apples, but they make for a great apple crisp dessert or apple pie. The only connotations I know about apples are cider mills and "an apple a day, keeps the doctor away" (health). Cider mills draw in large attractions. People love the good taste of apple cider (hot or cold), apple flavored donuts and bread, and just plain 'ol apples. Now, is it any wonder that apples have become the most sought after fruit?

God didn't make the rules?

As a Christian who was raised in a very religious family, I was always taught to unquestioningly accept the practices and teachings of the faith. You go to church every Sunday, accept Jesus as God's son, repent your sins, and repeat. This routine doesn't allow for question of belief, especially since it is assumed that God himself is the source of the rules we follow. This is why I was rightfully shocked to learn of Constantine's Council of Nicea. Some Roman leader decided what was acceptable for me to believe and what didn't matter? What?!

There were around 300 bishops that were present at the Council of Nicea and all contributed to the decisions about what Christians as a whole should believe. One section in particular was of great controversy during the session, concerning the words of Arius. Seventeen of the Bishops believed this to be true, but were overruled and Constantine made the final decision to reject the teachings all together. Even though a few years later, Constantine would change his mind and come to believe the Arian teachings that the church had refused. When dispute errupted Constantine was quoted, "This contention has not arisen respecting any important command of the law, nor has any new opinion been introduced with regard to the worship of God; but you both entertain the same sentiments, so that you may join in one communion. It is thought to be not only indecorous, but altogether unlawful, that so numerous a people of God should be governed and directed at your pleasure, while you are thus emulously contending with each other, and quarrelling about small and very trifling matters."

What?! A man who holds the beliefs on an entire religion in his hands, considers these matters to be trivial?! How can we be sure that Constantine did not discard an important part of the Christian faith? It's amazing how easy it is to be blissfully ignorant of how many of the practices and rules of the Christian religion were impacted during one council meeting in 325 C.E. Christians of today need to become more aware of the history of their religion, instead of blindly accepting every practice that they are taught because some of those deep rooted traditions were instated by a leader who did not even consider the matter to have much importance.

To better inform yourself on the history of the Christian belief system:
Click here

Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire

Most people have heard about the great Genghis Khan, brutal leader of the Mongols, but many people do not know much about the history of his empire. The Mongol Empire was the largest land empire in the history of the world- larger than the ancient Roman and Chinese empires. At its peak, Mongolian territory covered nearly all of Asia, stretching from the Yellow Sea in eastern Asia to the eastern Europe border. The Mongols are known as ruthless and savage conquerors but they also helped increase contact between the east and west and helped promote trade and the diffusion of ideas and goods.













The story of the Mongols all starts with Genghis Khan, or "Temujin," his given name at birth. As a child Temujin endured many hardships and slavery but when he was still a young man he rose to power as Chief of a small tribe. By 1206 he united all the tribes in Mongolia into one large, powerful empire- much like how Qin Shihuangdi unified the warring states of China. After taking control of the entire empire Temujin was given the title Genghis Khan, roughly translated to universal ruler. Motivated by power, greed and revenge for being held captive, Genghis immediately began to conquer and expand his empire. His first goal: conquer China. Genghis led the Mongols to victory over Xi-Xia, which composed of most of Northwestern China. Eventually the Xi-Xia submitted to the Mongols and became vital administrators to Genghis Khan. The Mongols turned their attention to the west in 1219 when a caravan under the protection of Genghis Khan had been massacred in Otrar, a city of the Khwarazm Empire, which consisted of all or parts of modern Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. Genghis Khan was humiliated by this attack. He put one of his trusted generals in charge of the battles in China while he led an army to central Asia to get revenge on the Khwarazm Empire. Over a three year period the Mongols completely destroyed the Khwarazm Empire and conquered almost all of Asia, coming close to Constantinople. After the destruction of central Asian empires Genghis Khan returned to get revenge on the rule of Xi-Xia, who did not provide troops to assist with the Mongols attack on central Asia. The Mongol leader returned to Xi-Xia and destroyed its capital and slaughtered many of its people.





Genghis Khan died in 1227 but his son Ogotai and later his grandson Kublai Khan continued to lead and expand the Mongol Empire. Kublai Khan completed the conquest of China in 1279 and his dynasty maintained control until 1368.





The Mongol Dynasty did not last long because it lacked administration, was too big, and had no cultural unity. Corrupt government and revolts eventually led to the demise of the dynasty. The Mongol legacy, however, still lives on today. Led by Genghis Khan they were the most savage conquerors in history. They ruled all of Asia with terror and massacred entire cities who resisted them. Genghis Khan murdered the leaders and the most noble people of all cities he conquered in order to prevent revolt and maintain order. He incorporated all captured men into his huge and powerful army.


The greatest lasting impact of Genghis Khan and the Mongols is the modern day of Mongolia, which would not exist without the great leadership of the great Khan.





Info was taken from the following websites:
http://franklaughter.tripod.com/cgi-bin/histprof/misc/mongol.html
http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/mongols/empsub1.html

Global Warming: Man vs. Environment

Global warming has become a increasingly popular issue in the press and many arguments have risen due to the increased warming trend. In the book "The Long Summer" , which I am reading for our Critical Book Review, Brian Fagan also discusses how the increased global temperatures have influenced the creation of many civilizations.

Some sources claim that the increased climate change trend has resulted from human activity's which have increased the release of carbon dioxide and other heat trapping gases. Although the industrial revolution has made the use of fossil fuels more prevalent, the endless cycle of global change over the past 15,000 years can not be forgotten.

The temperature variations between the Great Ice age and today has influenced civilizations to evolve from hunter and gatherer nomads to agriculturalists. The unpredictable and uncontrollable changes have forced populations to vacate their locations to pursue alternate primary food sources. The Relocation and adaptation was not an option for our ancestors, rather a necessity in the survival of mankind.

Although Global Warming is a prominent issue in today's society, we can not forget that without it we would not have developed into the civilization we are today. We must learn from our ancestors to adapt to our current climate and change our behaviors before the climate change turns detrimental.

Information From:
Fagan, Brian. The Long Summer: How Climate Changed Civilization. New York: Basic Books, 2005.
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/science/topics/globalwarming/index.html

Pop Culture: History of Dreadlocks

Dreadlocks are seen often in today’s society being worn by rappers, football players, actors and students. Dreadlocks are now a part of pop culture for our generation, but many do not know the history of this style of hair.

This hairstyle dates back to ancient Egypt, where dreadlocks appeared on Egyptian artifacts. On archaeological sites around Egypt, mummified remains of ancient Egyptians were dug up and found to have their hair dreaded. There is even a reference that recounts deadlocks in the Old Testament. The tale of Samson and Delilah talks about dreadlocks in which a man's potency is directly linked to "the seven locks on his head". The first writing about dreadlocks comes from India in the Veda scriptures dated to 1800 BC. Many cultures wore dreadlocks in the early ages, the Germanic tribes, the Greeks, the Naga Indians and even King Tut had dreadlocks, which are still intact to this day.


The reason the hairstyle is as popular as it is today is because of the Rastafarian movement that was born in the 1930s. Pop icon, Bob Marley sported deadlocks and brought them into mainstream culture, along with the philosophy of Rastafarian culture.

Information from:
http://www.knottyboy.com/learn/dread_history/
http://www.howtodread.com/dreads.html

Bridging the Eastern and Western Hemispheres

The Silk Road closed or 'bridged' the gap between the Eastern and Western zones. The Silk Road allowed the Chinese to export and distribute their goods to the western side of the world. The contact that the Chinese provided for the other cultures allowed people and societies to get a 'taste' of other cultures and the Silk Road made this possible. Originally, having cross-cultural contact was very limited and localized between cities and societies. The Silk Road expanded the trade between cultures, broadening its liminality. New technology and 'strong' states are what drives this network and continues to make the trade work successfully. Many important goods that were useful and needed were traded along the Silk Road. These products were spices such as pepper and ginger, cotton, pearls and jewelry, and of course, silk. Without the Silk Road, expansion of cultures could not have happened. This trade network opened many opportunites for the East and the Western states. The Silk Road is a great example of cross-cultural contact.

Contributor’s of the Silk Road

The importance of the Silk Road has been discussed both in class and also by some of my group members. This trade route originated in the east and ended at the Mediterranean. The most important link to establish cultural contact between the Roman empire and the Chinese empire. Contact would not have become so renowned without the help from the generals, diplomats and great monks that left a significant trace. They endured desolate desserts, murderous prairies, and crossed freezing Pamirs in order to spread beliefs and goods.

Ban Chao, a famous general was a diplomat in the Eastern Han Dynasty that built diplomatic relations with more than 50 states. Chao brought long lasting peace and harmony values along the Silk Road

Marco Polo is also a well known explorer that headed for China along the Silk Road. Marco discussed Chinese politics, economy, and culture to influence the the European navigation.

Zhang Quin was an outstanding explorer in Chinese history who opened up the ancient Silk Road and brought reliable information about the Western Regions.
http://www.travelchinaguide.com/silk-road/history/

Contact between Egypt and Rome 41-37 B.C.E

In my history course reviewing ancient history up to the year 1500, we were given an assignment requiring us to choose a book that focused one specific event of this time period. The book I have chosen is titled, The Reign of Cleopatra by Stanley M. Burstein. While reading this book I found the interaction between Cleopatra and Roman leader, Mark Antony, to be one of the most significant cross cultural interactions of this era.

• In 46 B.C.E Cleopatra visited the city of Rome and established a friendship with the roman people that would benefit the future makeup of her empire.
• This friendship, however, was tested in 42 B.C.E when Cleopatra was forced to side with Roman enemy Cassius in a battle against the triumvirs.
• In 41 B.C.E Mark Antony accused Cleopatra of being a traitor because of her ties with Cassius and was summoned to Rome to explain herself.
• After an extravagant and bold entrance by Cleopatra, Antony accepted the explanation Cleopatra gave for siding with a Roman enemy and reclaimed their friendship.
• After a night of seduction, Antony granted new territory to the empire of Cleopatra.
• 40 B.C.E Cleopatra gave birth to Antony's twins, Helios and Selene.
• 36 B.C.E Cleopatra gave birth to Antony's third child, Ptolemy Philadelphos.

This connection between Egypt and Rome was a key component for the trade of the political and economic resources between Africa and Europe. The birth of Helios, Selene, and Ptolemy Philadelphos symbolized a unity between the two nations of Egypt and Rome that would forever connect them politically. Political ideals would be traded and intermixed into the individual cultures that would shape the course of future beliefs and events for each civilization.

For more information on this cross cultural interaction between Cleopatra and Mark Antony: click here

North and South Forks of the Silk Road

The Silk Road is a series of trade routes through regions of the Asian continent mainly connecting Chang'an in China, with Asia Minor and the Mediterranean. Trade on the Silk road was a major factor in the developing of the great civilizations that was connected by the route. The road divides into north and south routes to avoid the Tibetan Plateau. The Tibetan Plateau is not just the largest but also the highest area in the world. It formed due to a full-speed collision of two continental plates. Tibetan Plateau contains Mount Everest and 13 other peaks that reach higher than 8000 meters and hundreds of peaks of 7000 meters of higher. The Plateau averages more than 5000 meters in elevation and with higher elevation the less dense the air is and the harder it is to breath. Due to the physical toll the Tibetan Plateau had on people not accustomed to the area, the trade route was divided and the people either went north or south of the plateau.

Information taken from:
http://www.crystalinks.com/silkroad.html
http://geology.about.com/od/structureslandforms/a/tibetanplat.htm

The Silk Road: The Greatest Cross-Cultural Contact Prior to 1500

The Silk Road was an ancient route established around 206 BC in the Han Dynasty of China for the political contact and trading of goods with the many kingdoms of Central Asia. It consisted of a variety of land and sea routes connecting nearly all of Eurasia. Although it is called the "silk road," silk was not the only product traded along the route. Gold, precious metals and stones, ivory, coral, spices, tea, paper, textiles, and chinaware were also traded between the east and the west. Silk was the most prominent product because it was used as a form of currency in China.

The Silk Road opened up an entire new world to people living western and eastern Eurasia. Many people in the west were exposed to Chinese products for the very first time and were amazed by all the new materials and goods. China, really for the first time in its history, stopped isolating themselves from the rest of the world. For the first time the Chinese traded with foreign countries and brought in foreign ideas and products. The trade along the Silk Road allowed civilization to grow as people had new resources and tools to expand.

The Silk Road was not only a way for goods and products to be traded. People in Eurasia were also exposed to new cultures, religions, ideas and technology. Buddhism spread to China and other areas from India and Christianity spread from the wet over into the east.

Information was taken from the following websites:
http://gallery.sjsu.edu/silkroad/intro.htm
http://www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html#8